Many travellers are surprised when they visit China at the energy and optimism of a people that has experienced tremendous social and eco- nomic upheaval over the past century. Despite political and economic uncertainties, most Chinese are excited about the rapid modernisation taking place in their country and look forward to the future.
With Beijing set to host the Olympics in 2008, the Chinese are eager to introduce their long-standing cultural traditions to the world and be accepted as a modern, progressive nation.
Chinese society, generally speaking, is based on the concept of guanxi. To get through difficult times, the Chinese rely on a tight network of family and friends for assistance and support. To get something done, it's often easier to 'go through a back door' (zou hou men), rather than through official channels. If a favour is offered, the receiver is obligated to return the favour sometime in the future. This keeps the gudnxi system running smoothly.
Another concern of visitors is the concept of 'face', which is intimidat- ing to many foreigners. In reality, the idea of face is very simple. All it means is not behaving in a way that would embarrass someone and cause them to lose status in front of their peers. One sure way for foreigners to make someone lose face in China is to lose their temper in public. Not only will the person targeted lose face, the foreigner loses face as well for being weak and unable to control their emotions. The Chinese pride themselves on self-control and when flustered or embarrassed will often giggle or give an evasive response, rather than deal with the situation di- ectly. Of course, this does not mean the Chinese don't get angry, but the general rule is that self-control in dealing with people goes a long way.
Despite language barriers, most foreigners will find themselves regu- arly meeting locals who are eager to strike up a conversation and, for many, practise their English. Once the initial ice has been broken, many foreigners will be faced with a barrage of questions regarding their age, marital status and career. This is mere friendliness on the part of the interlocutor and not meant to be nosy. It's a good idea to travel with some pictures of your family or some postcards from your hometown. These make great items for conversation and will probably win you a few friends.
In some rural areas, foreigners remain an exotic curiosity and will be greeted with stares, giggles and a chorus of 'hellos' that can irritate even the most tough-skinned of travellers. Generally, this behaviour is not mean-spirited but it can be very unsettling, especially if you are travelling alone. Some travellers respond with a simple wave and smile, others ignore the behaviour. Most definitely, getting angry doesn't help -it s likely your Chinese audience will have no idea why you are getting angry and fits of temper will inevitably create more excitement and draw larger crowds.
The lack of privacy is perhaps one of the most disconcerting things about a visit to China. Most Chinese grow up in small apartments in crowded conditions and are not accustomed to Western standards of squatting next to you. In major cities, many of these types of toilets have been replaced with private stalls (with doors), though they are still com- mon in less developed places as well as bus and train stations.
China is a vast country with many regional differences and you'll find that the behaviour of the Chinese may differ from place to place, ac- cording to custom and exposure to the outside world. This is especially true in the countryside, which can offer a remarkably different view of China than that which can be seen in the cities. Travellers will come away amazed at the diversity of people and places they have encountered.
Thursday, April 16, 2009
CHINA LIFESTYLE
Chinese culture is traditionally centred on the family, which was once considered a microcosm of society as a whole. In past Chinese society, the family provided support for every family member, including livelihood and long-term security. Extended family remains exceedingly important, with grandparents commonly acting as caretakers for grandchildren with adult children working and financially supporting their ageing parents. The end of cradle-to-grave welfare (the 'iron rice bowl') has brought increasing pressure on families who struggle to meet the rising costs of health care and education.
Economic pressures have had an impact on many young Chinese who are putting off marriage or having children until they've acquired enough money to ensure their financial security. It's estimated that today 14% of Chinese urban households consist of a single adult or childless couple who both work. The rapid development of the 1990s has raised the standard of living for many Chinese, who now face a dazzling array of choices in consumer items and experience a lifestyle very different from earlier generations.
Unfortu- nately, recent educational and economic opportunities are only available to a small segment of the population. The majority of Chinese live in the countryside, shut off from the benefits of China's economic reforms.
The growing gap between China's rich and poor is one of the worst in the world. City dwellers earn 2.8% more than those living in rural areas and receive subsidised health care and welfare while rural residents do not. The rural communities in inland China are the most poverty stricken, but those on the investment-laden east coast fare better. In the interior provinces, farmers eke out a meagre living growing just enough vegetables and rice to feed their own families but little to sell on the market. To make things worse, epidemics such as AIDS have hit inland provinces especially hard. Many farmers have sold their blood to unscru-pulous 'blood brokers', who collect the blood using unsanitary methods and pass the AIDS virus to donors and recipients.
There are few government programmes in place to help rural towns and villages, where farmers are expected to pay tor their own health care and the education of their children. This unequal treatment has spurred many rural families to move to the cities to try and find work, where they often find low-paying jobs in unsafe conditions. The government has promised to address these devastating trends, but few incentives have been put in place.
While all of this sounds pretty bleak, development has also had some positive effects. With an increasingly open society, and with, more exposure to the outside world, the Chinese are finding new forms of self-expression that were previously frowned upon by the communist authorities. Artists and writers are freeing themselves from earlier politi- cal restraints, contributing to a burgeoning literary and art scene that has been stifled for many years.
Censorship is still common, though what defines something as 'taboo' or 'off limits' can be arbitrary.
Though Chinese women suffer from low political representation and strict family policies (see China's One-Child Policy, p54), the women's movement has made considerable progress. The Marriage Law of 2001 gives victims of spousal abuse official protection and orders that abus- ers be punished to the fullest extent of the law. Victims can also sue for damages. In education, women make up 44% of students in colleges and universities and their average life expectancy is 73.7, 3.3 years more than men.
China's gay and lesbian community is also taking steps to ensure its rights as citizens. Homosexuality in China is technically illegal and any official discussion of the matter is taboo. Gays and lesbians can face harassment by police and, at times, criminal punishment. Regardless, the gay community has begun to organise social-service programmes and promote education about gay and lesbian issues on a grass-roots level. One well-established organisation is the Hong Kong-based Chi Heng Foundation which promotes gay rights through public education and media campaigns. This foundation has expanded into mainland China, focusing on AIDS prevention and the gay community.
Economic pressures have had an impact on many young Chinese who are putting off marriage or having children until they've acquired enough money to ensure their financial security. It's estimated that today 14% of Chinese urban households consist of a single adult or childless couple who both work. The rapid development of the 1990s has raised the standard of living for many Chinese, who now face a dazzling array of choices in consumer items and experience a lifestyle very different from earlier generations.
Unfortu- nately, recent educational and economic opportunities are only available to a small segment of the population. The majority of Chinese live in the countryside, shut off from the benefits of China's economic reforms.
The growing gap between China's rich and poor is one of the worst in the world. City dwellers earn 2.8% more than those living in rural areas and receive subsidised health care and welfare while rural residents do not. The rural communities in inland China are the most poverty stricken, but those on the investment-laden east coast fare better. In the interior provinces, farmers eke out a meagre living growing just enough vegetables and rice to feed their own families but little to sell on the market. To make things worse, epidemics such as AIDS have hit inland provinces especially hard. Many farmers have sold their blood to unscru-pulous 'blood brokers', who collect the blood using unsanitary methods and pass the AIDS virus to donors and recipients.
There are few government programmes in place to help rural towns and villages, where farmers are expected to pay tor their own health care and the education of their children. This unequal treatment has spurred many rural families to move to the cities to try and find work, where they often find low-paying jobs in unsafe conditions. The government has promised to address these devastating trends, but few incentives have been put in place.
While all of this sounds pretty bleak, development has also had some positive effects. With an increasingly open society, and with, more exposure to the outside world, the Chinese are finding new forms of self-expression that were previously frowned upon by the communist authorities. Artists and writers are freeing themselves from earlier politi- cal restraints, contributing to a burgeoning literary and art scene that has been stifled for many years.
Censorship is still common, though what defines something as 'taboo' or 'off limits' can be arbitrary.
Though Chinese women suffer from low political representation and strict family policies (see China's One-Child Policy, p54), the women's movement has made considerable progress. The Marriage Law of 2001 gives victims of spousal abuse official protection and orders that abus- ers be punished to the fullest extent of the law. Victims can also sue for damages. In education, women make up 44% of students in colleges and universities and their average life expectancy is 73.7, 3.3 years more than men.
China's gay and lesbian community is also taking steps to ensure its rights as citizens. Homosexuality in China is technically illegal and any official discussion of the matter is taboo. Gays and lesbians can face harassment by police and, at times, criminal punishment. Regardless, the gay community has begun to organise social-service programmes and promote education about gay and lesbian issues on a grass-roots level. One well-established organisation is the Hong Kong-based Chi Heng Foundation which promotes gay rights through public education and media campaigns. This foundation has expanded into mainland China, focusing on AIDS prevention and the gay community.
THE XIA THE SHANG and THE ZHOU
Chinese civilization, as described in mythology, begins with Pangu , the creator of the universe, and a succession of legendary sage-emperors and culture heroes (among them are Huang Di , Yao, and Shun) who taught the ancient Chinese to communicate and to find sustenance, clothing, and shelter.
THE XIA
The first prehistoric dynasty is said to be Xia , from about the twenty-first to the sixteenth century B.C. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Anyang , Henan Province, in 1928, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the Xia. But since then, and especially in the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the existence of Xia civilization in the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. At minimum, the Xia period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty.
TELLTALE SIGNS: THE SHANG
In 1899 peasants working near present-day Anyang unearthed pieces of polished bone and turtle shells. These relics were inscribed with charac- ters and dated back to around 1500 BC, the time of the Shang dynasty. Housed in Anyang's museum, these are the earliest examples of the elaborate writing system still used in China today.Shang culture was spread throughout much of north China, stretch- ing from Shandong to Shaanxi and Hebei to Henan. It was headed by a sacred kingship, who was supported by officials, armies, and a peasantry that supplied labour for the building of city walls and other public works. There was also a skilled artisanry that produced the magnificent bronzeware for which this dynasty is known; visit the Henan Provincial Museum for fabulous examples.
ENTER CONFUCIUS: THE ZHOU
Around three millennia ago the last Shang sovereign was defeated by the forces of Zhou who hailed from present-day Shaanxi province. The Zhou went on to rule over an increasingly large territory, reaching up to Beijing in the north and down to (he lower Yangzi River (Chang Jiang) valley in the south. To overcome the difficulties of ruling such a vast area, the Zhou established a feudal system whereby landlords governed over principalities that were contained within walled cities.In 771 BC the Zhou capital moved from a site near Xi'an to one further east, leading present-day historians to divide this period into Western and Eastern Zhou. During the period of Eastern Zhou law codes were written down, iron was discovered and the fortunes of the landed aristoc- racy waned, while self-made men achieved places at court and merchants grew wealthy. The Zhou's control over the principalities began to fade as landlords began to fight among themselves. The Eastern Zhou was a time riddled with strife, prompting reflection and philosophising on the part of one Master Kong (Kong Fuzi), better known in the West as Confucius. Confucius (551-479 BC) grew up in the old state of Lu, at the present- day site of Qufu (pl98) in Shandong province. The descendant of a minor noble family, he set off at an early age in search of an able and righteous ruler who might lead the world back to virtuous paths. In this mission he was doomed to disappointment, and his death in 479 BC was to be followed by an ever keener struggle among the states for power. Confu- cius did achieve enormous success as a teacher and moral exemplar, and the structure of Chinese society today remains very much rooted in his teachings. For more on Confucian beliefs, see the boxed text or head to Qufu for a good dose of hands-on history.
PEKING MAN
In the 1920s and 1930s Chinese archaeologists unearthed skulls, stone tools and animal bones believed to be between 500,000 and 230,000 years old. Was this the birthplace of civilisation? Unfortunately, we're unlikely to ever know. Research was never carried out on Peking Man's bones because, on the eve of the Japanese invasion, the remains mysteriously disappeared - some fear to the bottom of the sea.
THE XIA
The first prehistoric dynasty is said to be Xia , from about the twenty-first to the sixteenth century B.C. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Anyang , Henan Province, in 1928, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the Xia. But since then, and especially in the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the existence of Xia civilization in the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. At minimum, the Xia period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty.
TELLTALE SIGNS: THE SHANG
In 1899 peasants working near present-day Anyang unearthed pieces of polished bone and turtle shells. These relics were inscribed with charac- ters and dated back to around 1500 BC, the time of the Shang dynasty. Housed in Anyang's museum, these are the earliest examples of the elaborate writing system still used in China today.Shang culture was spread throughout much of north China, stretch- ing from Shandong to Shaanxi and Hebei to Henan. It was headed by a sacred kingship, who was supported by officials, armies, and a peasantry that supplied labour for the building of city walls and other public works. There was also a skilled artisanry that produced the magnificent bronzeware for which this dynasty is known; visit the Henan Provincial Museum for fabulous examples.
ENTER CONFUCIUS: THE ZHOU
Around three millennia ago the last Shang sovereign was defeated by the forces of Zhou who hailed from present-day Shaanxi province. The Zhou went on to rule over an increasingly large territory, reaching up to Beijing in the north and down to (he lower Yangzi River (Chang Jiang) valley in the south. To overcome the difficulties of ruling such a vast area, the Zhou established a feudal system whereby landlords governed over principalities that were contained within walled cities.In 771 BC the Zhou capital moved from a site near Xi'an to one further east, leading present-day historians to divide this period into Western and Eastern Zhou. During the period of Eastern Zhou law codes were written down, iron was discovered and the fortunes of the landed aristoc- racy waned, while self-made men achieved places at court and merchants grew wealthy. The Zhou's control over the principalities began to fade as landlords began to fight among themselves. The Eastern Zhou was a time riddled with strife, prompting reflection and philosophising on the part of one Master Kong (Kong Fuzi), better known in the West as Confucius. Confucius (551-479 BC) grew up in the old state of Lu, at the present- day site of Qufu (pl98) in Shandong province. The descendant of a minor noble family, he set off at an early age in search of an able and righteous ruler who might lead the world back to virtuous paths. In this mission he was doomed to disappointment, and his death in 479 BC was to be followed by an ever keener struggle among the states for power. Confu- cius did achieve enormous success as a teacher and moral exemplar, and the structure of Chinese society today remains very much rooted in his teachings. For more on Confucian beliefs, see the boxed text or head to Qufu for a good dose of hands-on history.
PEKING MAN
In the 1920s and 1930s Chinese archaeologists unearthed skulls, stone tools and animal bones believed to be between 500,000 and 230,000 years old. Was this the birthplace of civilisation? Unfortunately, we're unlikely to ever know. Research was never carried out on Peking Man's bones because, on the eve of the Japanese invasion, the remains mysteriously disappeared - some fear to the bottom of the sea.
The History of China
The History Of China, as documented in ancient writings, dates back some 3,300 years. Modern archaeological studies provide evidence of still more ancient origins in a culture that flourished between 2500 and 2000 B.C. in what is now central China and the lower Huang He ( orYellow River) Valley of north China. Centuries of migration, amalgamation, and development brought about a distinctive system of writing, philosophy, art, and political organization that came to be recognizable as Chinese civilization. What makes the civilization unique in world history is its continuity through over 4,000 years to the present century.
The Chinese have developed a strong sense of their real and mythological origins and have kept voluminous records since very early times. It is largely as a result of these records that knowledge concerning the ancient past, not only of China but also of its neighbors, has survived.
Chinese history, until the twentieth century, was written mostly by members of the ruling scholar-official class and was meant to provide the ruler with precedents to guide or justify his policies. These accounts focused on dynastic politics and colorful court histories and included developments among the commoners only as backdrops. The historians described a Chinese political pattern of dynasties, one following another in a cycle of ascent, achievement, decay, and rebirth under a new family.
Of the consistent traits identified by independent historians, a salient one has been the capacity of the Chinese to absorb the people of surrounding areas into their own civilization. Their success can be attributed to the superiority of their ideographic written language, their technology, and their political institutions; the refinement of their artistic and intellectual creativity; and the sheer weight of their numbers. The process of assimilation continued over the centuries through conquest and colonization until what is now known as China Proper was brought under unified rule. The Chinese also left an enduring mark on people beyond their borders, especially the Koreans, Japanese, and Vietnamese.
Another recurrent historical theme has been the unceasing struggle of the sedentary Chinese against the threat posed to their safety and way of life by non-Chinese peoples on the margins of their territory in the north, northeast, and northwest. In the thirteenth century, the Mongols from the northern steppes became the first alien people to conquer all China. Although not as culturally developed as the Chinese, they left some imprint on Chinese civilization while heightening Chinese perceptions of threat from the north. China came under alien rule for the second time in the mid-seventeenth century; the conquerors--the Manchus--came again from the north and northeast.
For centuries virtually all the foreigners that Chinese rulers saw came from the less developed societies along their land borders. This circumstance conditioned the Chinese view of the outside world. The Chinese saw their domain as the self-sufficient center of the universe and derived from this image the traditional (and still used) Chinese name for their country--Zhongguo () , literally, Middle Kingdom or Central Nation. China saw itself surrounded on all sides by so-called barbarian peoples whose cultures were demonstrably inferior by Chinese standards. This China-centered ("sinocentric") view of the world was still undisturbed in the nineteenth century, at the time of the first serious confrontation with the West. China had taken it for granted that its relations with Europeans would be conducted according to the tributary system that had evolved over the centuries between the emperor and representatives of the lesser states on China's borders as well as between the emperor and some earlier European visitors. But by the mid-nineteenth century, humiliated militarily by superior Western weaponry and technology and faced with imminent territorial dismemberment, China began to reassess its position with respect to Western civilization. By 1911 the two-millennia-old dynastic system of imperial government was brought down by its inability to make this adjustment successfully.
Because of its length and complexity, the history of the Middle Kingdom lends itself to varied interpretation. After the communist takeover in 1949, historians in mainland China wrote their own version of the past--a history of China built on a Marxist model of progression from primitive communism to slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and finally socialism. The events of history came to be presented as a function of the class struggle. Historiography became subordinated to proletarian politics fashioned and directed by the Chinese Communist Party. A series of thought-reform and antirightist campaigns were directed against intellectuals in the arts, sciences, and academic community. The Cultural Revolution (1966-76) further altered the objectivity of historians. In the years after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, however, interest grew within the party, and outside it as well, in restoring the integrity of historical inquiry. This trend was consistent with the party's commitment to "seeking truth from facts." As a result, historians and social scientists raised probing questions concerning the state of historiography in China. Their investigations included not only historical study of traditional China but penetrating inquiries into modern Chinese history and the history of the Chinese Communist Party.
In post-Mao China, the discipline of historiography has not been separated from politics, although a much greater range of historical topics has been discussed. Figures from Confucius--who was bitterly excoriated for his "feudal" outlook by Cultural Revolution-era historians--to Mao himself have been evaluated with increasing flexibility. Among the criticisms made by Chinese social scientists is that Maoist-era historiography distorted Marxist and Leninist interpretations. This meant that considerable revision of historical texts was in order in the 1980s, although no substantive change away from the conventional Marxist approach was likely. Historical institutes were restored within the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and a growing corps of trained historians, in institutes and academia alike, returned to their work with the blessing of the Chinese Communist Party. This in itself was a potentially significant development.
The Chinese have developed a strong sense of their real and mythological origins and have kept voluminous records since very early times. It is largely as a result of these records that knowledge concerning the ancient past, not only of China but also of its neighbors, has survived.
Chinese history, until the twentieth century, was written mostly by members of the ruling scholar-official class and was meant to provide the ruler with precedents to guide or justify his policies. These accounts focused on dynastic politics and colorful court histories and included developments among the commoners only as backdrops. The historians described a Chinese political pattern of dynasties, one following another in a cycle of ascent, achievement, decay, and rebirth under a new family.
Of the consistent traits identified by independent historians, a salient one has been the capacity of the Chinese to absorb the people of surrounding areas into their own civilization. Their success can be attributed to the superiority of their ideographic written language, their technology, and their political institutions; the refinement of their artistic and intellectual creativity; and the sheer weight of their numbers. The process of assimilation continued over the centuries through conquest and colonization until what is now known as China Proper was brought under unified rule. The Chinese also left an enduring mark on people beyond their borders, especially the Koreans, Japanese, and Vietnamese.
Another recurrent historical theme has been the unceasing struggle of the sedentary Chinese against the threat posed to their safety and way of life by non-Chinese peoples on the margins of their territory in the north, northeast, and northwest. In the thirteenth century, the Mongols from the northern steppes became the first alien people to conquer all China. Although not as culturally developed as the Chinese, they left some imprint on Chinese civilization while heightening Chinese perceptions of threat from the north. China came under alien rule for the second time in the mid-seventeenth century; the conquerors--the Manchus--came again from the north and northeast.
For centuries virtually all the foreigners that Chinese rulers saw came from the less developed societies along their land borders. This circumstance conditioned the Chinese view of the outside world. The Chinese saw their domain as the self-sufficient center of the universe and derived from this image the traditional (and still used) Chinese name for their country--Zhongguo () , literally, Middle Kingdom or Central Nation. China saw itself surrounded on all sides by so-called barbarian peoples whose cultures were demonstrably inferior by Chinese standards. This China-centered ("sinocentric") view of the world was still undisturbed in the nineteenth century, at the time of the first serious confrontation with the West. China had taken it for granted that its relations with Europeans would be conducted according to the tributary system that had evolved over the centuries between the emperor and representatives of the lesser states on China's borders as well as between the emperor and some earlier European visitors. But by the mid-nineteenth century, humiliated militarily by superior Western weaponry and technology and faced with imminent territorial dismemberment, China began to reassess its position with respect to Western civilization. By 1911 the two-millennia-old dynastic system of imperial government was brought down by its inability to make this adjustment successfully.
Because of its length and complexity, the history of the Middle Kingdom lends itself to varied interpretation. After the communist takeover in 1949, historians in mainland China wrote their own version of the past--a history of China built on a Marxist model of progression from primitive communism to slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and finally socialism. The events of history came to be presented as a function of the class struggle. Historiography became subordinated to proletarian politics fashioned and directed by the Chinese Communist Party. A series of thought-reform and antirightist campaigns were directed against intellectuals in the arts, sciences, and academic community. The Cultural Revolution (1966-76) further altered the objectivity of historians. In the years after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, however, interest grew within the party, and outside it as well, in restoring the integrity of historical inquiry. This trend was consistent with the party's commitment to "seeking truth from facts." As a result, historians and social scientists raised probing questions concerning the state of historiography in China. Their investigations included not only historical study of traditional China but penetrating inquiries into modern Chinese history and the history of the Chinese Communist Party.
In post-Mao China, the discipline of historiography has not been separated from politics, although a much greater range of historical topics has been discussed. Figures from Confucius--who was bitterly excoriated for his "feudal" outlook by Cultural Revolution-era historians--to Mao himself have been evaluated with increasing flexibility. Among the criticisms made by Chinese social scientists is that Maoist-era historiography distorted Marxist and Leninist interpretations. This meant that considerable revision of historical texts was in order in the 1980s, although no substantive change away from the conventional Marxist approach was likely. Historical institutes were restored within the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and a growing corps of trained historians, in institutes and academia alike, returned to their work with the blessing of the Chinese Communist Party. This in itself was a potentially significant development.
Wednesday, April 15, 2009
The Four Treasures of The Study
The Four Treasures of The Study
Writing Brush , Ink-Stick , Paper & Inkstone
Among the various tools of calligraphy, writing brush is peculiar to China. The brushes are varied, and white goat's hair, black rabbit's hair and yellow weasel's hair are three major types. On the basis of the function of tip, the brushes are classified into three groups: "Hard", "Soft" and "Both". The handle is made of not only bamboo, wood, lacquer and porcelain, but also some precious materials including mother-of-pearl inlay, ivory and jade.
Writing brush has such a long history that prehistoric painted pottery, inscriptions on oracle bones, bamboo slips and silks are all writing materials for brush. Some ancient writing brushes were also excavated in the graves of the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States, the Qin and Han Dynasties. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, Xuanzhou became the national writing-brush-producing center, whose products were called "Xuan-bi", and "Zhuge-bi" was the best in quality in Xuanzhou. After the Yuan Dynasty the brush-producing industry of Huzhou boomed, and "Hu-bi" replaced "Xuan-bi". The characteristics of "Hu-bi" were sharp, neat, round and tough.
* * * * *
The ink-stick is the unique pigment of Chinese traditional painting and calligraphy. At the initial stage natural ink or half-natural ink was generally used. It was during the Han that artificial ink appeared. At that time the most famous ink-stick was "Yumi-mo" produced at Qianyang, Shaanxi. The raw materials of ink-stick were pine, oil and lacquer.
Before the Five Dynasties the ink-producing center was in the North, then it reached the South. The most celebrated South ink-stick was "Hui-mo", which was produced in Huizhou of Anhui.
* * * *
Paper ( the background of this page you are reading now is a kind of writing paper made in Qing Dynasty) is one of the most famous Chinese inventions. It is widely accepted that paper was invented by Cai Lun in the Eastern Han. However the archaeologists have discovered paper of Western Han such as "Fang-ma-tan" paper, "Ba-quao" paper, "Xuan-quan" paper, "Ma-quan-wan" paper, "Ju-yan" paper and "Han-tan-po" paper.
After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, paper was extensively used instead of traditional writing materials such as bamboo slips and silks. Various methods of producing paper emerged one after another.
In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the paper producing industry was very thriving. Celebrated products in best quality appeared one after another. In the Qing "Xuan-zhi" produced in Jing Prefecture of Anhui (Xuanzhou), became the special paper for painting and calligraphy, and was regarded as "the king of the paper"
* * * *
Inkstone is the most important of "four treasures of the study". Because of its solid texture inkstone can be handed down from ancient times.
In the ruins of primitive society the archaeologists discovered simple stone ink-slab that needed a pestle to grind pigments. After artificial ink-sticks appeared in Han, pestle gradually disappeared. There were pottery ink-slab, lacquer ink-slab and copper ink-slab in the Han Dynasty as well as stone ink-slab. Among the stone ink-slabs, the round tripod pieces were the most typical. During the Wei, Jin and Northern-and-Southern Dynasties, round tripod porcelain ink-slabs were in vogue. It was in the Sui and Tang that "Piyong" inkstone having circular legs appeared.
* * * *
Ancient tools of calligraphy included not only brush, ink-stick, paper and inkstone, but also some accessories such as penholder, brush pot, ink box, paperweight, seal, seal box. The raw materials of these tools were pottery, porcelain, copper, iron, lacquer, wood, bamboo, stone, jade, jadeite, agate and coraI.
Writing Brush , Ink-Stick , Paper & Inkstone
Among the various tools of calligraphy, writing brush is peculiar to China. The brushes are varied, and white goat's hair, black rabbit's hair and yellow weasel's hair are three major types. On the basis of the function of tip, the brushes are classified into three groups: "Hard", "Soft" and "Both". The handle is made of not only bamboo, wood, lacquer and porcelain, but also some precious materials including mother-of-pearl inlay, ivory and jade.
Writing brush has such a long history that prehistoric painted pottery, inscriptions on oracle bones, bamboo slips and silks are all writing materials for brush. Some ancient writing brushes were also excavated in the graves of the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States, the Qin and Han Dynasties. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, Xuanzhou became the national writing-brush-producing center, whose products were called "Xuan-bi", and "Zhuge-bi" was the best in quality in Xuanzhou. After the Yuan Dynasty the brush-producing industry of Huzhou boomed, and "Hu-bi" replaced "Xuan-bi". The characteristics of "Hu-bi" were sharp, neat, round and tough.
* * * * *
The ink-stick is the unique pigment of Chinese traditional painting and calligraphy. At the initial stage natural ink or half-natural ink was generally used. It was during the Han that artificial ink appeared. At that time the most famous ink-stick was "Yumi-mo" produced at Qianyang, Shaanxi. The raw materials of ink-stick were pine, oil and lacquer.Before the Five Dynasties the ink-producing center was in the North, then it reached the South. The most celebrated South ink-stick was "Hui-mo", which was produced in Huizhou of Anhui.
* * * *
Paper ( the background of this page you are reading now is a kind of writing paper made in Qing Dynasty) is one of the most famous Chinese inventions. It is widely accepted that paper was invented by Cai Lun in the Eastern Han. However the archaeologists have discovered paper of Western Han such as "Fang-ma-tan" paper, "Ba-quao" paper, "Xuan-quan" paper, "Ma-quan-wan" paper, "Ju-yan" paper and "Han-tan-po" paper.
After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, paper was extensively used instead of traditional writing materials such as bamboo slips and silks. Various methods of producing paper emerged one after another.
In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the paper producing industry was very thriving. Celebrated products in best quality appeared one after another. In the Qing "Xuan-zhi" produced in Jing Prefecture of Anhui (Xuanzhou), became the special paper for painting and calligraphy, and was regarded as "the king of the paper"
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Inkstone is the most important of "four treasures of the study". Because of its solid texture inkstone can be handed down from ancient times.
In the ruins of primitive society the archaeologists discovered simple stone ink-slab that needed a pestle to grind pigments. After artificial ink-sticks appeared in Han, pestle gradually disappeared. There were pottery ink-slab, lacquer ink-slab and copper ink-slab in the Han Dynasty as well as stone ink-slab. Among the stone ink-slabs, the round tripod pieces were the most typical. During the Wei, Jin and Northern-and-Southern Dynasties, round tripod porcelain ink-slabs were in vogue. It was in the Sui and Tang that "Piyong" inkstone having circular legs appeared.
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Ancient tools of calligraphy included not only brush, ink-stick, paper and inkstone, but also some accessories such as penholder, brush pot, ink box, paperweight, seal, seal box. The raw materials of these tools were pottery, porcelain, copper, iron, lacquer, wood, bamboo, stone, jade, jadeite, agate and coraI.
The Clay Fertility Figures of Henan
The Clay Fertility Figures of Henan
On any given day of the week, working days as well as holidays, you will find the people of Nanyang and Zhoukou in Henan Province creating rustic-looking yet colourful clay toys. Children, who like to play with them, call them "Nini Gou" (clay puppy) since most of these moulded figures are in the shape of a dog or other small animal. Some of them also have small over holes and can be used as whistles.
Not all the clay moulded figures are toys for children, however:some are made as sacrificial offerings to be taken to the Taihaoling Mausoleum dedicated to Fuxi in Huaiyuang to solicit blessings or tender thanks to Fuxi for favours received. Chinese people believe that Fuxi was the progenitor of the human race, and legend has it that after the marriage of Fuxi and Nuwa, Nuwa began to mould human beings out of clay, and ever since mankind has continued to multiplu. It is based on this legend that moulding clay figures is practised to this day.
These figures often feature conspicuous reproductive organs and some are portrayed in the actual act of conjugation. One can also find sets of twins and half-human, half-animal figures. Such creations are expressions of the artists' hopes for abundant progeny and livestock.
As Fuxi is regarded as the deity in charge of birth, it is said that if those wishing to have a child take home a clay figure which has been previously enshrined at the Fuxi Mausoleum, their wish will be granted. After they have a child, they are expected to mould or buy a new clay figure and take it to the mausoleum as a way of fulfilling their duty and expressing thanks. This custom is known as "Shuan Wawa" (Tethering a Child).
Shanghai World Expo 2010
Expo 2010 will be held in Shanghai, China and is a scheduled World's Fair in the grand tradition of international fairs and expositions.
The theme of the exposition will be "Better City – Better Life" and signifies Shanghai's new status in the 21st century as a major economic and cultural center. It is expected to generate the largest number of visitors in the history of the world's fairs in terms of gross numbers, although it will have a tough time matching the per capita visit rate of the 1967 Montreal World's Fair, attended by 50 million people at a time when Canada's total population was a mere 20 million.
The event is tentatively scheduled to be held from 1 May 2010 – 31 October 2010.
Infrastructure Preparations
The site of the event is the Nanpu Bridge-Lupu Bridge region in the center of Shanghai along both sides of the Huangpu River. The area of the Expo 2010 covers 5.28 km².
Officials in Beijing announced plans on March 6 2006, to begin construction of a second commercial maglev train system in China by the end of 2006. The new line to connect Shanghai and Hangzhou, which is expected to take four years to complete construction, is hoped to be in service for Expo 2010.
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